After testing, data was checked and due to technical failure several participants' electromyography and voluntary activation level data were excluded from the analysis as noted in Figure 1. Baseline characteristics of the participants in each group are shown in Table 1 , with the only differences observed between men and women in height and body mass. Table 1. There were no adverse effects reported during the training and testing processes; one control subject had a recurrence of a previous illness during the study.
Block randomization was performed for the first participants selected, ensuring that each group contained 25 participants. Thereafter, the remaining non-allocated 6 participants were randomly allocated to the intervention groups. For the purposes of the present study, the three intervention groups were combined since they all followed the same initial intervention.
Approximately 7 days before testing the participants visited the laboratory to become familiarized with all test protocols. Here, all test devices were set according to individual participant's anthropometry and practice trials were performed. Electrode locations for electromyography EMG recordings were marked by indelible ink tattoo to allow accurate replacement during all test sessions. Participants were required to perform these tests with perfect technique by the cessation of the session, with 5—10 warm-up contractions performed prior to maximal effort trials.
The participants were also allowed 2—3 practice trials of each functional capacity test at the end of the session. The same instructions and performance requirements were followed in the familiarization session as the following performance tests. The intervention group performed muscular endurance strength training twice-per-week for 12 weeks with at least 48 h between sessions and each session was supervised by experienced gym instructors.
The week program was divided into a 4-week initiation phase and an 8-week super-set training phase Table 2. The primary goal of the initiation phase was to teach the participants correct technique for all exercises and to progressively increase the loads used so that a true RM load would be determined in week 4. The primary goal of the super-set phase was to limit rest periods to challenge the anaerobic and aerobic energy systems to maintain work output.
This type of training program is in-line with those classified as muscular endurance strength training Clayton et al. All subjects were required to perform all repetitions using a tempo of 2 s concentric and 2 s eccentric phase and the selected load was aimed to induce volitional concentric failure in the final repetition of the final set.
Therefore, the precise load was adjusted between-sets if the supervisor observed that it was too light or too heavy to perform the exercise in such a way as to fulfill these aims. All participants were required to complete at least 21 out of 24 training sessions prior to testing. Participants in the non-training control group were instructed to maintain their normal physical activity throughout the study period.
All participants recorded their daily leisure-time physical activity levels in diaries. Each trial was separated by 1. Data was sampled at 2, Hz and filtered by a Hz low-pass filter fourth-order Butterworth and the best trials were used in further analyses. Four maximal walking tests performed were included in the assessment of functional capacity; 1 7. The best performance from two acceptable trials was used in the analyses and the sum result from both directions was used for TUG.
The participants were not allowed to use their arms to assist in the chair rise or return. During the stair climb test, the participants carried one bag of 5 kg women or 10 kg men and were instructed to maintain an extended elbow position and prevent arm-swinging during the ascent. Unilateral isometric knee extension force of the right leg was measured using a custom-built isometric force chair.
The force signal was sampled as described in the leg press trials with the highest force used in further analysis. Thereafter, two additional maximum isometric knee extension trials were performed with femoral nerve stimulation delivered during the force plateau and 2 s after contraction cessation see section Voluntary Activation Level. Maximum force was measured and then converted to torque by taking into account the lever arm distance from the knee joint-center to the ankle strap KE MVC.
Participants performed 3—4 isometric plantarflexion actions following the same instructions as for the knee extension trials. Maximum force was measured and then converted to torque by taking into account the lever arm distance from the ankle joint-center to the shelf connected to the strain gauge PF MVC. Torque was also normalized to the cross-sectional area of the measured muscles that influence these actions KE norm and PF norm. Raw EMG signals were sampled at 2, Hz and amplified at a gain of sampling bandwidth 10— Hz.
Offline, EMG signals were band-pass filtered at 20— Hz and root mean square was obtained from approx. Values are taken from the best trials in each performance measure. Current intensity was gradually increased until no further increases were observed in peak-to-peak M-wave amplitude of VL and VM. Single twitches were delivered in a resting condition to determine peak-to-peak maximum M-wave amplitude and duration.
Single twitches were also delivered about the maximum torque during isometric knee extension trials and 2 s after contraction cessation to determine voluntary activation level according to Merton's interpolated twitch technique, as previously described Walker et al.
Muscle cross-sectional area CSA measurements of the right leg were taken 1—2 days prior to dynamic leg press performance tests and 6—7 days after the final training session to account for any exercise-induced swelling. Indelible ink tattoos on the medial and lateral sides of the target muscles ensures accurate replacement of scanning track.
Oriented in the axial-plane, the probe was moved manually with a slow and continuous movement from medial to lateral along a marked line on the skin. Great care was taken to diminish compression of the muscle tissue. Images were obtained throughout the movement. As the orientation of each image relative to adjacent images is known, the software builds a composite image. Upon visual inspection of the composite images three were selected to undergo further analysis. CSA was determined by manually tracing along the border of each muscle using Image-J software version 1.
The mean of the two closest values for each muscle were taken as the CSA result. Participants fasted overnight for 12 h and were instructed to drink 0. After determination of height by a fixed wall-mounted scale, participants underwent full body scanning by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry DXA in minimal clothing LUNAR Prodigy Advance with encore software version 9.
The legs were separated by a polystyrene block and secured by inelastic straps about the ankles. Total body fat mass and fat-free mass, as well as fat-free mass of the legs was determined using software-generated analysis. The sample size was estimated from the reported effect sizes in Liu and Latham's meta-analysis for maximum strength and functional capacity.
The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to test normality and Levene's test was used to analyze homogeneity of variance. One-way analysis of variance with Bonferroni post-hoc tests was used to assess differences between the sex groups at baseline.
Thereafter, statistical analyses were performed separately for men and women. Performance for the whole group i. For optimal measurement and assessment, the testing should be very similar to the muscular fitness training.
Kramer and Fry suggest the following protocol for 1 RM testing. At this point a small increase in weight is added to the load and a 1 RM lift is attempted. The client should be allowed ample rest at least minutes before each 1 RM attempt. Kramer and Fry emphasize that ongoing encouragement and communication with the client during this testing is crucial to obtain the best performance. If the intent is to classify muscular strength, in relation to total body weight, divide the total amount lifted lbs by the clients body weight lbs.
Standard norms see Tables are used to evaluate this relative strength ratio. Her ratio would be 1. The most widely used exercises for upper and lower body muscular strength testing are the bench press and leg press, respectively.
Other dynamic strength tests include the arm curl, latissimus dorsi pull down, knee extension and knee curl. Norms for assessing the combined total of these strength measures, by calculating a point score for each measure, are presented in Table 5 Heyward, A prediction equation has been developed using up to a 10 repetitions See Figure 1 Brzycki, This method of 1 RM estimation describes the mathematical relationship between the number of reps performed to fatigue failure must occur at 10 repetitions or less and the actual 1 RM.
Therefore, you can select any number up to 10 RM for the prediction e. Table 6 shows predicted 1 RM from various weight and repetition combinations. For example, lifting a 75 lb weight for 9 repetitions estimates the 1 RM to be 96 lbs. The personal trainer may find the estimation of 1 RM method a more practical, and certainly safer, alternative to maximal exertion testing.
Factors such as age, current training status, physical limitations, and fitness goals will help define the most appropriate test protocol. Testing procedures for a 10 RM or less are similar to that of the 1 RM test. It is desirable to achieve a 10 RM maximum on the next load increase if possible.
Since the testing volume is greater for the 10 RM than the 1 RM, fatigue will undoubtedly affect the outcome. When using this prediction testing method, allow for sufficient rest between sets 3 to 5 minutes or more , maintaining a strong communication with the client.
Muscular Endurance Testing Muscular endurance may be measured using a fixed percentage of a person's body weight, a fixed percentage of a one's 1 RM, an absolute weight, or calisthenic-type exercises. However, good norms have yet to be established with most of these types of test protocols. To help with the execution of this movement, Baston says to place a chair behind you and slightly touch the chair with your butt before standing. This will help ensure you are squatting low enough, which is approximately 90 degrees.
The pushup test is one of the best ways to assess upper-body endurance, explains Bell, especially in the muscles of the chest and shoulders. You may also want an exercise mat. Without moving anything, drop your knees to the floor and perform the pushup test this way. This will be a more achievable pushup position. Muscles tested: rectus abdominis, obliques, hip flexors, erector spinae, and transverse abdominis. The core muscles , which include those of the abdominals, hips, and lower back, play a critical role in daily activities.
Maintaining strength and endurance in these muscles helps you with movements that require bending, twisting, reaching, and pulling. If you cannot hold a low plank, Bell says you can drop your knees exactly how you did in the pushup test. For valid results, remember to take very specific notes so that re-testing shows exactly how far you have come. Also, if you are looking for a more advanced version of the plank test, Baston says to perform the plank with straight arms, keeping your elbows and wrists in alignment with shoulders.
This requires more upper-body strength compared to the elbow plank, which requires more core strength. Having a goal to work toward can help you stay focused, motivated, and committed to your health and wellness.
Comparative charts are available for each of the muscular endurance tests based on age and gender. Clients support themselves on one elbow and on their feet while laying their hips of the floor to create a straight line from head to toe. The uninvolved arm is held across the chest with the hand placed on the opposite shoulder. Record the total time that each isometric position can be held, allowing a minimum of 5 minutes rest between each test.
Stop timing at one minute, or when client can no longer hold position. The hands are shoulder width apart, the back is straight, and the head is up. Have the client raise the body by straightening the arms and then return to the starting position, touching the chin to the mat. The stomach should not touch the mat at any time. Instruct both men and women that the back must be straight at all times and the pushup must be to a straight-arm position.
Count the maximal number of push-ups performed in good form without rest. Stop the test when the client cannot maintain good form on two consecutive reps, or strains forcibly and cannot continue.
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