Many spurious reports were often deliberately put into circulation to support claims of various political and sectarian groups. Other additions resulted from the natural tendency to confuse common practices that predated Islam with new Islamic laws and norms. The fading of memory, the dispersion of the companions of the prophet over vast territories, and the passing away of the last of these companions also contributed to the problem of authenticating Muhammad's traditions.
To establish the authority of hadith on firmer ground, Muslim scholars developed several disciplines dedicated to examining and verifying the relative authenticity of various reports attributed to the Prophet. The contents of sayings, as well as the reliability of those who transmitted them, were carefully scrutinized, and the hadiths were classified into groups granted varying degrees of authenticity, ranging from the sound and reliable to the fabricated and rejected.
This systematic effort culminated in the 9th century, some years after the death of Muhammad, in the compilation of several collections of sound sahih hadith. Of six such highly reliable compilations, two in particular are considered by Muslims to be the most important sources of Islamic authority after the Qur'an.
Historically, the compilation of hadith went hand in hand with the elaboration of Islamic law and the parallel development of Islamic legal theory. Initially, neither the law nor its procedures were systematically elaborated, although there can be little doubt that both the Qur'an and hadith were regularly invoked and used to derive laws that governed the lives of Muslims. By the beginning of the 9th century, the use of these two sources was systematized and a complex legal theory was introduced.
In its developed form, this theory maintains that there are four sources from which Islamic law is derived. These are, in order of priority, the Qur'an, the hadith, the consensus of the community ijma , and legal analogy qiyas. Functional only when there is no explicit ruling in the Qur'an or hadith, consensus confers legitimacy retrospectively on historical practices of the Muslim community. In legal analogy, the causes for existing Islamic rulings are applied by analogy to similar cases for which there are no explicit statements in either the Qur'an or hadith.
Using these methods, a vast and diverse body of Islamic law was laid out covering various aspects of personal and public life. In addition to the laws pertaining to the five pillars, Islamic law covers areas such as dietary laws, purity laws, marriage and inheritance laws, commercial transaction laws, laws pertaining to relationships with non-Muslims, and criminal law.
Jews and Christians living under Muslim rule are subject to the public laws of Islam, but they have traditionally been permitted to run their internal affairs on the basis of their own religious laws. During Muhammad's lifetime, two attempts were made to expand northward into the Byzantine domain and its capital in Constantinople, and within ten years after Muhammad's death, Muslims had defeated the Sassanids of Persia and the Byzantines, and had conquered most of Persia , Iraq , Syria , and Egypt.
The conquests continued, and the Sassanid Empire was soon after destroyed and the influence of Byzantium was largely diminished see Byzantine Empire. For the next several centuries intellectuals and cultural figures flourished in the vast, multinational Islamic world, and Islam became the most influential civilization in the world.
The Rightly Guided Caliphs The first four successors of Muhammad, known as rightly guided caliphs, ruled for some 30 years see Caliphate. Their rule, together with that of Muhammad, is considered by most Muslims to constitute the ideal Islamic age. The administration of the eastern and western Islamic provinces was coordinated from these two sites.
After the third caliph, Uthman, was murdered by a group of Muslim mutineers, the fourth caliph, Ali, succeeded to power and moved his capital to Kufah in Iraq. From this capital he fought the different opposition factions. Among the leaders of these factions, Mu'awiyah, governor of the rich province of Syria and a relative of Uthman, outlasted Ali.
After Ali's death in , Mu'awiyah founded the Umayyad dynasty, which ruled a united Islamic empire for almost a century. Under the Umayyads the Islamic capital was shifted to Damascus. See Spread of Islam. Although they began as a political group, the Shia, or Shia Muslims , became a sect with specific theological and doctrinal positions.
A key event in the history of the Shia and for all Muslims was the tragic death at Karbala of Husayn, the son of Ali, and Muhammad's daughter Fatima.
Husayn had refused to recognize the legitimacy of the rule of the Umayyad Yazid, the son of Mu'awiyah, and was on his way to rally support for his cause in Kufah.
His plans were exposed before he arrived at Kufah, however, and a large Umayyad army met him and 70 members of his family at the outskirts of the city. The Umayyads offered Husayn the choice between a humiliating submission to their rule or a battle and definite death.
Husayn chose to fight, and he and all the members of his family with him were massacred. The incident was of little significance from a military point of view, but it was a defining moment in the history of Shia Islam. Although not all Muslims are Shia Muslims, all Muslims view Husayn as a martyr for living up to his principles even to death.
They believe that legitimate Islamic leadership is vested in a line of descent starting with Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, Ali, through Ali's two sons, Hasan and Husayn, and then through Husayn's descendants. These were the first 12 imams, or leaders of the Shia Muslim community. The Shia Muslims believe that Muhammad designated all 12 successors by name and that they inherited a special knowledge of the true meaning of the scripture that was passed from father to son, beginning with the Prophet himself.
This family, along with its loyal followers and representatives, has political authority over the Shia Muslims. Sunni Islam Sunni Islam was defined during the early Abbasid period beginning in AD , and it included the followers of four legal schools the Malikis, Hanafis, Shafi'is, and Hanbalis.
In contrast to the Shias, the Sunnis believed that leadership was in the hands of the Muslim community at large. The consensus of historical communities, not the decisions of political authorities, led to the establishment of the four legal schools. In theory a Muslim could choose whichever school of Islamic thought he or she wished to follow and could change this choice at will. The respect and popularity that the religious scholars enjoyed made them the effective brokers of social power and pitched them against the political authorities.
After the first four caliphs, the religious and political authorities in Islam were never again united under one institution. Their usual coexistence was underscored by a mutual recognition of their separate spheres of influence and their respective duties and responsibilities. Often, however, the two powers collided, and invariably any social opposition to the elite political order had religious undertones. Sufism An ascetic tradition called Sufism , which emphasized personal piety and mysticism and contributed to Islamic cultural diversity, further enriched the Muslim heritage.
In contrast to the legal-minded approach to Islam, Sufis emphasized spirituality as a way of knowing God. During the 9th century Sufism developed into a mystical doctrine, with direct communion or even ecstatic union with God as its ideal. One of the vehicles for this experience is the ecstatic dance of the Sufi whirling dervishes.
Eventually Sufism later developed into a complex popular movement and was institutionalized in the form of collective, hierarchical Sufi orders. The Sufi emphasis on intuitive knowledge and the love of God increased the appeal of Islam to the masses and largely made possible its extension beyond the Middle East into Africa and East Asia. Sufi brotherhoods multiplied rapidly from the Atlantic coast to Indonesia; some spanned the entire Islamic world, others were regional or local. The tremendous success of these fraternities was due primarily to the abilities and humanitarianism of their founders and leaders, who not only ministered to the spiritual needs of their followers but also helped the poor of all faiths and frequently served as intermediaries between the people and the government.
The Abbasid Dynasty Islamic culture started to evolve under the Umayyads, but it grew to maturity in the first century of the Abbasid dynasty. The Abbasids came to power in AD when armies originating from Khorasan, in eastern Iran, finally defeated the Umayyad armies. The Islamic capital shifted to Iraq under the Abbasids.
After trying several other cities, the Abbasid rulers chose a site on the Tigris River on which the City of Peace, Baghdad, was built in Baghdad remained the political and cultural capital of the Islamic world from that time until the Mongol invasion in , and for a good part of this time it was the center of one of the great flowerings of human knowledge. The Abbasids were Arabs descended from the Prophet's uncle, but the movement they led involved Arabs and non-Arabs, including many Persians, who had converted to Islam and who demanded the equality to which they were entitled in Islam.
The Abbasids distributed power more evenly among the different ethnicities and regions than the Umayyads had, and they demonstrated the universal inclusiveness of Islamic civilization. They achieved this by incorporating the fruits of other civilizations into Islamic political and intellectual culture and by marking these external influences with a distinctly Islamic imprint.
As time passed, the central control of the Abbasids was reduced and independent local leaders and groups took over in the remote provinces. Eventually the rival Shia Fatimid caliphate was established in Egypt, and the Baghdad caliphate came under the control of expanding provincial dynasties. The office of the caliph was nonetheless maintained as a symbol of the unity of Islam, and several later Abbasid caliphs tried to revive the power of the office.
In , however, a grandson of Mongol ruler Genghis Khan named Hulagu, encouraged by the kings of Europe, led his armies across the Zagros Mountains of Iran and destroyed Baghdad. According to some estimates, about 1 million Muslims were murdered in this massacre.
In and Hulagu's forces marched into Syria, but they were finally defeated by the Mamluks of Egypt, who had taken over the Nile Valley. For the next two centuries, centers of Islamic power shifted to Egypt and Syria and to a number of local dynasties. Iraq became an impoverished, depopulated province where the people took up a transitory nomadic lifestyle. Iraq did not finally experience a major cultural and political revival until the 20th century.
The Presence of Islam in the 20th Century Many of the accepted Islamic religious and cultural traditions were established between the 7th and 10th centuries, during the classical period of Islamic history. However, Islamic culture continued to develop as Islam spread into new regions and mixed with diverse cultures.
The 19th-century occupation of most Muslim lands by European colonial powers was a main turning point in Muslim history. The traditional Islamic systems of governance, social organization, and education were undermined by the colonial regimes.
Nation-states with independent governments divided the Muslim community along new ethnic and political lines. Today about 1 billion Muslims are spread over 40 Muslim countries and 5 continents, and their numbers are growing at a rate unmatched by that of any other religion in the world. Despite the political and ethnic diversity of Muslim countries, a core set of beliefs continues to provide the basis for a shared identity and affinity among Muslims.
Yet the radically different political, economic, and cultural conditions under which contemporary Muslims live make it difficult to identify what constitutes standard Islamic practice in the modern world.
Many contemporary Muslims draw on the historical legacy of Islam as they confront the challenges of modern life. Islam is a significant, growing, and dynamic presence in the world. Its modern expressions are as diverse as the world in which Muslims live. The Quran on Human Embryonic Development :.
The Quran on the Origin of the Universe. What Does Islam Say about Terrorism? Life after death, the Day of Judgment, Paradise, and Hellfire. What is the Purpose of Life? Jesus in Islam. Human Rights In Islam. Following the Messenger of Allah is a must.
Sunna the second book that has to follow:. Women: polygamy. Al-Islam "Our objectives are to digitise and present on the Internet quality Islamic resources, related to the history, law, practice, and society of the Islamic religion and the Muslim peoples with particular emphasis on Twelver Shia Islamic school of thought. We would also like to invite everyone to spare a few moments of their life to read and think. Ar-Refai Islamic Website A well organized and extensive collection of general and academic resources.
Darsh, chairman of the UK Shari'ah Council. Emam Reze A. The Foundation of Islam and Dialogue "Mission Statement To emphasize that Islam is based on principles such as affection, compassion, mercy, and tolerance and certainly not on violence, hostility, and terror; that all religions are based on these principles and therefore all conflicts of the past should be abandoned in order to initiate a warm dialogue and to free our world from the agony of war and conflict, carrying her into a peaceful and fortunate future.
Institute of Islamic Studies - London " It intends to facilitate academic debates and discussions on issues that are thought to be highly important to Iran, Middle East, Northern Africa, other Muslim Countries and the Muslim communities living in Europe and North America.
It is rich in information, references, and bibliography. It has been reviewed and edited by many professors. It is simple to read, yet contains much scientific information.
The Islam Page. Both practice and academic selections. Includes sections on Islamic movements, history, dictionaries, texts, women, Hajj, pictures, chat rooms, Islamic countries among others. A wonderful Resource Produced by Ibrahim Shafi. PBS Online. Islamic Studies, Arabic, and Religion Web Page An important academic site that includes language aids, maps, art, music, history, texts, a glossary, sections on Sunni Islam, Sufism, and a lot more. Bunt, Dept. Although there is a fine line between the histories of Islamic thought and Muslim civilization, it is useful to treat the study of Islam, the faith, somewhat differently than history, politics and analysis of Muslim peoples.
Cole, Dept. By Dr. Alan Godlas, University of Georgia. Understanding Islam "This site epitomizes a movement. A movement to reform intellectual stagnation. This is an attempt to go back to the original sources of Islam -- the Qur'an and the Sunnah , in a time when blind acquiescence is in vogue In our pages you will find us working towards these objectives by explaining Islam from various aspects and by responding to criticisms and queries.
This in fact is an academic effort targeted towards understanding of Islam and any abusive or emotional attitude in its response will not be a deterrence. However, it would be appropriate to mention two additional features of the site. Firstly, the inclusion of our Urdu articles under the title of 'Ishraq'. Secondly, in the near future, rendering of different issues in the form of brief audio files. The Way to Truth Understanding Islamic Religion This well designed site includes a lengthy index of categories to choose from as well as selected readings.
The site is especially useful for anyone wanting a thorough introduction to Islam. Additional Sites of Interest. Adab Islami Literature of Islamic Writers. He had a large number of followers who were devoted to his movement.
He was a genius and earned many different types of degrees and broke all previous records at the Punjab University in Pakistan, and at the Oxford and Cambridge Universities of England.
Canadian Society of Muslims. Includes Topics on Faith. In Memory of Dr. Akhtar Hameed Khan "Dr. Michigan State University awarded Honorary Doctorate.
International Institute of Islamic Thought. International Society for Islamic Secularization. Islam " It includes an introductory course on Islam and presents Islamic views on contemporary issues. The section on comparative religious studies has articles on the commonality and differences between Islam and other religions. Islamic Center of America. Shahmaghsoudi School of Islamic Sufism A nonprofit religious and educational organization.
A beautiful site. Maintained by Khalid Shaukat. Totally Tessellated "Included is an extensive historical gallery which draws images from many sources. Mathematics-oriented, user-friendly tutorials filled with helpful illustrations and animations help users understand and create tessellations. Who is Our Savior? Women in Islamic Society By Prof.
Abdur Rahman I. Women in the Quran and the Sunnah By Prof. World Council of Muslim Women Foundation. Pecorino All Rights reserved. Web Surfer's Caveat: These are class notes, intended to comment on readings and amplify class discussion. They should be read as such. They are not intended for publication or general distribution. Return to: Table of Contents for the Online Textbook.
Philosophy of Religion. Chapter 2. You reading should indicate why this is so. Special thanks to the Microsoft Corporation for their contribution to our site. The information above came from Microsoft Encarta. Here is a hyperlink to the Microsoft Encarta home page. Satan and Evil. Satan is of the Jinn—creations parallel to man but more evil. Emergence of the Muslim Community. This chapter demonstrates that the Arabs were looking for a religion like Judeo-Christianity.
Stories of Jesus and Moses circulated around the Arab community, so when they came to Muhammad, they came in the form of Revelation. From this community of oneness around the final revelation monotheism given to Muhammad emerged the concept of the Muslim ummah —the house of Islam. The Christians and Jews were called the People of the Book, yet they were viewed as defective in their so-called monotheism.
But the Muslim community demonstrated the ideal, since it did not deviate in its strident devotion to monotheism. The author does not seem to get distracted with theological minutiae or tangential issues.
He must live under the command of God in order to fulfill his responsibility now and in eternity. He will reap in eternity what he has faithfully or unfaithfully sown on Earth. Rahman expounds themes that are sometimes shrouded. Give Now. Log In. Quran is the only law that a Muslim Submitter should accept for religious matters.
The Quran states to cut the hand of the thief. It does not say to cut off. This "cut" is to put a mark on the thief's hand. A reminder to not do it again. The cutting off the hand is one of these man-made laws and is not Quranic.
The Quran encourages forgiveness and an equitable compensation from the murderer to the victim's kin. Quran , , , The Quran is not a copy of the Bible. God says that the Quran came to confirm and supersede all previous scriptures.
Since the Quran and the previous scriptures all came from the same source, from God, The similarities between them are understandable. However, the Quran is unique. Embedded in it is a mathematical code which is easy to understand but, at the same time, impossible to imitate. It is based on the prime number 19 and the system mathematically codes the chapters, the verses, the words, and even the letters. Numerous other elements are also part of the code.
The significance of this coding is that it proves beyond a doubt that the Quran is the word of God, not of man. Of course. God says in the Quran that men and women are equal. If God says this, then who are we to dispute it?
No, submission to God is a matter between the individual and God. Satan believes in the existence of God but he is not going to Paradise. Belief in God is necessary but not sufficient. One also needs to accept God's attributes and live according to His laws.
S0, The more you strive, the higher the rank you achieve? Paradise has ranks. Much of man's suffering would be reduced if we were to follow God's system. For example, if there were equitable distribution of God's provisions, there would be less poverty, hardship and disease.
Poverty and suffering would not be completely eliminated, because many people, still, would not follow God's law, otherwise we'd be in Paradise. God also explains that our life on this Earth is a test. We are tested through adversity and blessings. God says: "Do the people think that they will be left to say we believe without being tested?
Tested by, Children , Scholars , Property , Ego , Saints , , No, hardship can be as a result of a test or as a consequence of something you've done. Sometimes, what we think of as adversity, is really a blessing when viewed through hindsight. Quran ,74,79, Of course, God is in full control. However, we have the freedom to choose to follow his guidance. And we are accountable for our actions. Quran has been translated into many languages and for those who sincerely seek to understand it, God says that He will teach It to them no matter what language it is in.
Muslims do not follow Muhammad. They follow the word of God that was revealed to prophet Muhammad. Some people believe that he couldn't. But a careful study of Quran indicates that he could.
Definitely not. People all over the world practice Islam. Quran came to all the people. The sunnah are the practices and the hadith are sayings attributed to the Prophet Muhammad. Most Muslims consider the Sunnah and Hadith a source of religious guidance and laws but it is very interesting that the Quran commands the Muslims to follow no other source than the Quran for their religion.
The books of Hadiths and Sunnah are full of corruption and contradictions to the teachings of the Quran. They have many insults to the religion that they allegedly serve. Many of these corruptions were introduced into these books by the enemies of Islam.
Quran says:. They utter lies and attribute them to GOD, knowingly. A book that is consistent and points out both ways In which Hadlith other than God and His revelations do they believe? Yes, according To the Quran, Muhammad is the seal of the prophets. But the Quran says that a messenger is sent to every community. God also teaches us in the Quran that after all the prophets have come a consolidating messenger will come, the messenger of the covenant. See The central theme of the Quran is the oneness of God and the shahada is a statement that acknowledges that there is no God but the one God.
This statement or declaration can be found in various places in the Quran. For example the Quran says that "God bears witness that there is no God except He and so do the angels and those who possess knowledge. Their judgment rests with God, then He will inform them of everything they had done.
The western image of Muslim women is one of suppression The Quran refers to men and women as being equal in the sight of GOD. In a lot of cases, we see Muslim women covered from head to toe. In some Muslim countries, women are not allowed out without the "veil'. What does the Quran say about these requirements. Modest dress is the requirement in the Quran. There are specific instructions for women to cover the bosom and for both men and women to cover the private parts.
The Quran does not command to cover the head or face. These are cultural dress codes, not religious requirements. The instruction in the Quran is to pull a cover over The bosom. It doesn't say anything about covering the head.
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